I always found it strange that doctors are allowed to prescribe a variety of potent and expensive psychoactive medications but safe and cheap herbs that people could grow for themselves (e.g. cannabis) are outlawed. To make it more strange an adult can go into a liquor store and buy an unlimited amount of alcohol, which addicts and kills people by the thousands every year. Similarly with tobacco. Of course, state and local government make a significant amount of money from booze and tobacco taxes and pharmacology companies make billions from drug sales, some of which finds its way into politicians’ pockets; could that be part of the reason for our illogical system? I guess letting people grow their own isn’t going to line anybody’s pockets. What does any of this have to do with the Bible? Let’s see…
Moses is clearly one of the most significant figures in the Bible, and therefore in the Jewish and Christian religions, and is even cited frequently in the Qur’an. Most people know that Moses is the one who received the Ten Commandments directly from God while up on Mount Sinai, even if they only know it from watching Cecil B. DeMille’s movie, The Ten Commandments, starring Charlton Heston as Moses.[1]
Just to briefly review the Moses story: the Hebrews are working as slaves in Egypt but are becoming so numerous that Pharaoh is concerned.[2] He orders all the male babies to be killed. Moses’ mother and sister try to evade this by putting Moses into a water-proofed basket and floating him down the Nile. I mean, with unpredictable currents and wild animals including crocodiles what could possibly go wrong with such a plan?! But God is clearly watching over Moses and he ends up being rescued by one of Pharaoh’s own daughters, so that Moses ends up growing up in Pharaoh’s household. What are the odds?! As an adult Moses sees a Hebrew slave being mistreated and so he kills the assaulting Egyptian. He fears his deed will be discovered and so he flees into the wilderness. There he marries the daughter of a Midianite priest (scandalous!) and helps tend the family’s flocks. One day he is up on Mt. Sinai (aka Horeb) and has a mystical experience with God which convinces him to return to Egypt to lead the Hebrew people out of bondage. This leads to the Ten Plagues put upon Egypt and their miraculous escape through the dry bed of the Red Sea, as beautifully depicted in DeMille’s film.
Moses leads the Hebrew people to Mt. Sinai where God (Yahweh) gives him the law, including the infamous Ten Commandments hewn on tablets of stone. And the rest is history, as they say. I want to focus on Moses’ initial encounter with Yahweh on the mountain. There may be more to it than just a fanciful tale of a legendary figure meeting God.
Let’s look at the story as told in Exodus 3. On the mountain Moses sees a bush, and “the bush was burning with fire, yet the bush was not being consumed.” God then speaks to Moses out of the bush to tell him that He sees the oppression of the Hebrews in Egypt and that He will send Moses to lead them out. Moses is cautious, or scared, so God gives him some demonstrations of what he can do. First, Moses’ shepherd staff turns into a snake, and then back into a staff. Next Moses puts his hand inside his robe and when he takes it out it is white with leprosy. He puts it back into the robe and it comes out normal again. Eventually Moses is convinced to proceed with God’s plan.
What most people totally overlook when reading this story (or seeing it on film) is that it contains the classic attributes of a drug trip. When Moses was high on Mt. Sinai, was he literally “high?” Consider the elements of the story:
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* There is a perception of bright light, in the form of the burning bush, which might represent the heightening of senses common with drug use.
* There is a distortion of time perception, as the bush seems to keep burning without being consumed.
* His staff appears to turn into a snake. Hallucinations involving wavy or wriggling images are common during drug trips (or delirium). If accompanied by the sensation of crawling on the skin it is called formication.
* His hand turns white. Altered perception of body parts (and other things) is another common effect seen during drug use.
* Profound religious or spiritual feelings. In this case Moses feels like he is communing with God Himself. Some drugs (e.g., MDMA or “ecstasy”) are particularly noted for this effect, whether it be communing with God, or the world, or the universe.
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Am I suggesting that Moses was simply experiencing a drug trip on Mt. Sinai? Not really. Historians question if there even was a Moses, or if he was a legendary creation developed later to serve as the great lawgiver for the Hebrew people. Rather, I am suggesting that the details of the story may have originated with the experiences ancient people had with various drugs. This is not my original idea. Many scholars have looked into this. One of them is psychology professor Benny Shanon of the Hebrew University in Jerusalem, who has written extensively on this and other aspects of drug use in religious experience. A more recent effort to explore drug use in ancient religion is the book The Immortality Key by Brian Muraresku. I mention such scholars to suggest this is not an outlying crazy idea, but it is given serious consideration, and also to give credit where credit is due.
Most Christians are probably offended by the idea that Bible stories could be inspired by drug use, but drug use was very common in ancient religions. It is possible that drug use was in fact the origin of many religious experiences and rituals that led to the religions we know today. Let’s review some of the drug use associated with ancient religions.
Native Americans have used peyote and mushrooms in religious ceremonies for over two millennia. In the Olmec civilization in Central America priests were buried with toads known to contain psychoactive secretions. There are cave paintings at Tassili n’Ajjer in Algeria thought to be over 6,000 years old that appear to be showing shamans (medicine men) holding potentially hallucinogenic mushrooms during their rituals. Some ancient Greeks used alcohol in their religious rites, particularly the cult of Dionysus, the god of both wine and religious ecstasy. The Oracle at Delphi may have entered her trances with the aid of petrochemical fumes, via natural gas vents in the area. Hindu mystics continue to use cannabis (marijuana) as a spiritual aid, and the Hindu scriptures, the Vedas, speak of a drug called soma which was used in religious rituals. In the Middle East cannabis and hashish were used. In fact, the word “assassin” is derived from “hashish” because it was thought that a sect of killers in Persia used hashish to get in the mood. Imagine a mob of assassins stoked up on hashish! The Pazyryk burials are Scythian Iron Age tombs in Siberia in which the dead were buried with cannabis (marijuana) seeds. Pacific islanders used kava in their ceremonies. So, pretty much every area of the world used psychoactive substances in their ancient religious rites. That should not be surprising, given that drugs create sensations and perceptions that might lead one to think they have entered a spiritual dimension or are communing with heavenly beings and are having mystical experiences. But not in the Bible, right?! Not in the Judeo-Christian tradition!
There is more in the Bible than the burning bush episode. Acacia wood is mentioned numerous times in the Bible and is known to have psychoactive properties. Perhaps the burning bush was in fact acacia wood putting off psychedelic fumes? Perhaps it is no coincidence that the altar used for burning incense in the tabernacle, and later the temple, was supposed to be made specifically out of acacia wood (Exodus 30:1). When you combine drugs you get a greater effect, and what kind of incense was to be burned on this altar of acacia wood? There is a recipe given for incense to be burned in the tabernacle.
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Take also for yourself the finest of spices: of flowing myrrh five hundred shekels, and of fragrant cinnamon half as much, two hundred and fifty, and of fragrant cane two hundred and fifty…
Exodus 30:23
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“Fragrant cane” in the Hebrew is “qaneh besem,” and it is not thought to be a coincidence that the phrase sounds like the word “cannabis.”[3] No wonder the priests thought they were communing with God in the temple! They were as high as kites! And of course, there was a strict law that only priests could burn this incense. Talk about keeping a good thing to yourself.
Here is a passage from one of the most poetic and romantic books in the Bible:
I have come into my garden, my sister, my bride;
I have gathered my myrrh along with my balsam.
I have eaten my honeycomb and my honey;
I have drunk my wine and my milk.
Eat, friends; Drink and imbibe deeply, O lovers.”
Song of Songs (or Solomon) 5:1
The word translated “honeycomb” is usually translated as timber or forest when otherwise used in the Bible, but the Hebrew word (“ya’ar”) is thought to mean to thicken with vegetation, per the standard Bible reference Strong’s. Some think that this is a reference to combining another plant with honey, most likely cannabis. Even today it is popular to combine cannabis and honey: just do an online search and you can find recipes (only advisable where it is legal!). I doubt Bible translators are thinking of this association when they translate the word “ya’ar.” Cannabis resin can be scraped off the plants and then used by ingestion or smoking or combined with other substances, like honey. Cannabis was known and used in the Middle East and North Africa, so the Hebrew people would have been familiar with it. There is no general prohibition in the Law of Moses against the use of such mind-altering substances, except, as mentioned above, the special oil with “qaneh besem” was strictly for use by the priests (Exodus 30:33).
There is a curious passage in 1 Samuel 14: In that passage King Saul is battling the Philistines, and the people come into a forest in which there was “honey” on the ground. The root of the Hebrew word means “gummy” or “syrupy” so it could mean cannabis resin just as well as honey, but again, what Bible translator would think of that? When Saul’s son Jonathan partakes of it his “eyes brightened,” or literally, his eyes “shined.” Maybe it was just that honey pepped him up, but drug effects are commonly seen in the eyes. And King Saul himself may not have been a stranger to drug use.
Saul was said to be subject to mood swings, as described in 1 Samuel 16:14-23. He also developed extreme paranoia, at one point hurling a spear at his protégé David (1 Samuel 18:10, 11) and later hunting him down because the people were praising him more (1 Samuel 18:6-9). Mood swings and paranoia are classic symptoms of drug use. Just sayin’… Furthermore there is an incident described which sounds very much like a drug party. To set the stage, in 1 Samuel 10 the prophet Samuel tells Saul to seek out a group of prophets:
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“…you will meet a group of prophets coming down from the high place with harp, tambourine, flute, and a lyre before them, and they will be prophesying. “
I Samuel 10:5
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I think in this passage he means high as in elevation, but coming down from a high makes for an interesting play on words in our current context. Prophets were those associated with inspirational (as by a divine spirit) oration, poetry and song, not necessarily fortune-telling, which is what many people think of with that term. It seems like they were the artistic community within Israel. And they wouldn’t be the first nor the last artists to use drugs for inspiration, if in fact they did so. So, “when they came there to the hill, behold, a group of prophets met him (Saul); and the Spirit of God rushed upon him, so that he prophesied among them.” But a later similar passage gives us more detail of what happened when Saul hung out with the prophets: It’s kind of humorous, actually.
First Saul sends some messengers to a group of prophets, but the messengers end up hanging out and “prophesying” themselves (again, think of singing and telling stories). So he sends a second group of messengers: same thing happens. Then a third group: same result. He keeps sending these men to be with the prophets and they all end up hanging out and “prophesying.” So finally:
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[Saul] proceeded there to Naioth in Ramah; and the Spirit of God came upon him also, so that he went along prophesying continually until he came to Naioth in Ramah. He also stripped off his clothes, and he too prophesied before Samuel and lay down naked all that day and all that night. Therefore they say, “Is Saul also among the prophets?”
I Samuel 19:23, 24
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Tell me that doesn’t sound like a drug party to you! Laying around naked all day, while singing and reciting poems and telling stories.
Have you ever read the book of Ezekiel? Now, if some of that doesn’t sound drug-inspired I don’t know what does! I mean, he describes flying wheels within wheels with eyes all around, and beings with four faces and four wings, three of the faces being animals (Ezekiel 1)[4]. He had a vision of a valley full of dead bones that all came back to life (chapter 37). Ezekiel also performed some outrageous stunts during his preaching ministry. At one time he lied down on his left side for 390 days, then his right side for another 40 days. He publicly baked his food over cow dung. He shaved off his hair and beard and burned it in front of the people (chapters 4 & 5).[5] The dude was a little extreme.
In Ezekiel 27:17 he refers to “cakes [pannag], honey, oil.” Some word scholars believe that the Hebrew word “pannag” used in the book of Ezekiel is connected to the origin of the word “cannabis,” and the Sanskrit word “pannaga” refers to an aromatic plant, which fits this connection. And we even see the association with honey and oil again. I realize that this is all very circumstantial, but given the widespread use of psychoactive drugs in ancient religions it is something that needs to be considered.
This sounds like a lot of speculation, but there is some hard evidence accumulating about drug use in ancient Israel. Paleochemistry is a new field that analyzes substances found in ancient relics, and archaeobotany investigates evidence of how the ancient used various plants.. Consider this find:
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In the Negev desert known as Tel Arad, archaeologists excavating an ancient Jewish shrine have found traces of burnt cannabis and frankincense on a pair of limestone altars… “This is the first time that cannabis has been identified in the Ancient Near East; its use in the shrine must have played a central role in the cultic rituals performed there,” says Eran Arie, an archaeologist with the Israel Museum in Jerusalem and lead author of the new research, in the statement.[6]
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Brian Muraresku’s book goes into additional detail about such research, which has the potential to connect drug use with early Christianity, too.
What about the New Testament? Jesus’ mentor was John the Baptist who seemed to follow along the lines of Ezekiel, although not as extreme:
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John the Baptist appeared in the wilderness preaching a baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sins…John was clothed with camel’s hair and wore a leather belt around his waist, and his diet was locusts and wild honey.
Mark 1:4, 6
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But was it really locusts? Allow me to quote from the blog of James Tabor, recently retired professor of Christian origins and ancient Judaism at UNC-Charlotte:
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The Greek word for locusts (akris/ἀκρίδες) is very similar to the Greek word for “honey cake” (enkris/έγκρίς) that is used for the “manna” that the Israelites ate in the desert in the days of Moses. According to this ancient text [Epiphanius: Panarion 30.13.4-5] it was not locusts but these cakes cooked in olive oil. If this is the case then John would have eaten a cake of some type, made from a desert plant, similar to the “manna” that the ancient Israelites ate in the desert in the days of Moses.
Did John the Baptist Eat Bugs, Beans, or Pancakes?
JamesTabor.com, December 20, 2015
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So it is possible that John ate some sort of pancake mixed with honey, but we obviously cannot say that it contained cannabis. However, the use of cannabis resin or cannabis combined with honey would be consistent with his role as a prophet and could explain his unusual behavior. Seeing the heavens opened up, the Spirit of God descending on Jesus like a dove, and hearing the voice of God would also be consistent with a drug experience (Matthew 3:16, 17).
Some have gone so far as to suggest that Jesus used cannabis in connection with his healings. He apparently instructed his disciples to anoint people with oil as in Mark 6:13:
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And they were casting out many demons and were anointing with oil many sick people and healing them.
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Early Christians also anointed sick people with oil, as in James 5:14:
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Is anyone among you sick? Then he must call for the elders of the church and they are to pray over him, anointing him with oil in the name of the Lord…
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Of course it could just be olive oil, which if nothing else might help with skin ailments and was symbolic of God’s blessing. However, it is interesting to see the proliferation of CBD (cannabidiol) oil use in our society today. CBD is an active ingredient in cannabis but without the psychoactive property of THC. I think the benefits of CBD are overblown, but it does seem that cannabis has some useful medical properties that are being researched now. This is one (rare) case in which the ancients may have gotten a jump on modern science.
One medical application of cannabis may be in helping to control seizures in epilepsy. The most common miracle Jesus performed in the Gospels is the exorcism of evil spirits, and if you read the episodes it sounds like they are describing seizures: see Mark 9:20 for example. Is it possible that Jesus was simply administering cannabis to these people? I am sure he prayed for them, too, but perhaps later the drug detail was omitted and it became a purely miraculous feat?
The apostle Paul makes a curious observation about the church in Corinth. When talking to them about the Lord’s Supper (Eucharist/communion) he says:
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For he who eats and drinks, eats and drinks judgment to himself, if he does not judge the body rightly. For this reason many among you are weak and sick, and a number sleep [likely a euphemism for death].
1 Corinthians 11:29, 30
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Now, it may be that Paul thought that not taking the Lord’s Supper properly led to spiritual sickness and therefore physical sickness. But if the cup contained more potent substances than just wine then he could be describing the effects of drug overdosing. Taking too much leads you to feel weak, sick or can even kill you. People assume that the cup contained just wine, but the New Testament never describes the contents of the cup in detail. Given the habits of ancient religions is it so improbable that the wine was spiked with other substances in order to enhance the transcendent experience, the feeling of communing with God? Brian Muraresku explores this idea more thoroughly in his book The Immortality Key if you’d like to pursue it further.
So, where does that leave us? Mind-altering drugs were widely known and used in religious ceremonies in the ancient Middle East and around the world and their use continues today in some religions. The use of such drugs with their apparently mystical effects may have contributed to the formation of religion as we know it. There is circumstantial evidence for drug use in the ancient Judeo-Christian religion, and modern science may yet provide more concrete evidence, as at Tel Arad. Nowhere does the Law of Moses prohibit the use of psychoactive substances, other than the restriction that only the priests could use the recipe given in Exodus 30. Various stories in the Bible are entirely consistent with drug experiences. Given the prevalence of drug use in ancient religions it would be harder for me to believe that the ancient Israelites did not use such substances than to believe that they did.
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Thinking exercises:
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1. Why do you think modern religion has such a negative view of psychoactive drugs, even though they were commonly used in ancient religions? Why will many Christians take prescription drugs while condemning natural ones?
2. Why would God create plants that interact with the brain, possibly expanding perception and treating some medical conditions (epilepsy, glaucoma, PTSD, depression, etc.), but then disapprove of us using them? Does He disapprove, or is that just uptight religion saying so?
3. How would you react if paleochemists found more evidence of drug use in the ancient Judeo-Christian tradition? Would it affect your belief system in any way? Would it affect your stance on drug use in any way?
[1] My father went to school with Heston at Northwestern University and one of our family heirlooms is a photo of my dad on stage with Heston during a play. Heston was the main character, of course.
[2] According to the Bible, not necessarily according to historians and archaeologists.
[3] Wikipedia has a good section on the word origins if you will look up ”Etymology of cannabis.” I realize that “sounds like” does not mean “is,” but it is a fascinating coincidence.
[4] Ancient alien theorists love to use this passage as a description of a visitation by spaceship piloted by strange beings, but I think drug effects are more likely.
[5] Technically, he burned a third of it, cut a third with his sword, and scattered a third to the wind.
[6] “Archaeologists Identify Traces of Burnt Cannabis in Ancient Jewish Shrine” by Alex Fox at www.smithsonianmag.com, June 4, 2020.